Extended Abstract
Background and Purpose
Sport is not merely a physical activity but also a dynamic context for developing cognitive and motivational skills essential to personal growth and success. Psychological research has increasingly emphasized the role of internal cognitive processes in athletic performance. Among these, self-critical thinking plays a particularly significant role. It refers to an individual's ability to reflect critically on their behavior and performance, identify weaknesses, and seek self-improvement. Constructive self-criticism helps athletes regulate emotions, manage anxiety, and set achievable goals. In contrast, excessive or maladaptive self-criticism may lead to diminished confidence and performance anxiety.
Cognitive flexibility—the ability to shift perspectives, adapt strategies, and regulate thought processes in changing environments—is another key factor in sports success. Athletes with higher cognitive flexibility can adapt more effectively to competitive pressure, learn from mistakes, and maintain focus during challenges. Flexibility supports creative decision-making, which is particularly relevant in dynamic sports environments where situations change rapidly.
Moreover, achievement goals play a mediating role in the relationship between cognition and performance. These goals determine how athletes conceptualize success—whether they are mastery-oriented (focused on self-improvement) or performance-oriented (focused on outperforming others). Studies have shown that mastery-oriented goals promote intrinsic motivation, persistence, and higher satisfaction, while performance-oriented goals may lead to stress and burnout under certain conditions.
While previous studies have largely focused on male athletes, there remains a gap in understanding how these psychological constructs operate among female student-athletes, particularly in cultural contexts such as Iran where gender norms may influence motivation, confidence, and self-perception. This study seeks to fill this gap by exploring how self-critical thinking and cognitive flexibility relate to athletic performance in female students through the mediating role of achievement goals.
Methods
The study was applied in purpose and followed a descriptive–correlational design. The statistical population included all female high school student-athletes in Qorveh County during the 2023–2024 academic year. Based on the calculations performed using G*Power software, a minimum sample size of 210 participants was determined to ensure adequate statistical power. A stratified random sampling method was employed to provide proportional representation across both sport types (team and individual disciplines) and educational grade levels. Data were collected through four standardized instruments with established psychometric properties. The Self-Critical and Self-Reassuring Scale (22 items) was used to assess inadequate self-criticism, constructive self-criticism, and self-reassurance. Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The Persian version of the instrument was validated by Shamir, Mazboohi, and Mari (2019). In the present study, the overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.87, with subscale reliabilities ranging from 0.78 to 0.82, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. The Dennis and Vander Wal Cognitive Flexibility Scale (2007), consisting of 20 items measured on a seven-point Likert scale, assessed perceived controllability, perception of multiple alternatives, and cognitive adaptability. The Persian version was validated by Kohandani and Abolmaali Alhosseini (2017). In this study, the overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.82.
The Achievement Goals Questionnaire developed by Elliot and McGregor (2001) includes 12 items measuring mastery–approach, mastery–avoidance, performance–approach, and performance–avoidance orientations. The Persian adaptation for student populations was validated by Moshtaghi et al. (2012). In the present research, the overall Cronbach's alpha was 0.84. Sport performance was measured using the Sport Success Scale (SSS), a 29-item instrument assessing four dimensions: technical performance, tactical performance, psychological performance, and social interaction. Responses were scored on a five-point Likert scale. The overall reliability coefficient in the current study was 0.80 (Mousavi & VaezMousavi, 2015).
All measurement tools demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and construct validity. Composite Reliability (CR) values exceeded 0.70 and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values were above 0.50 for all constructs, confirming adequate convergent validity. Data analysis was conducted using SmartPLS software based on the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach, which is suitable for predictive modeling and examining direct and indirect effects among psychological variables.
Results
The proposed model demonstrated strong reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. The overall model fit (GOF = 0.54) indicated high structural adequacy. The analysis revealed that self-critical thinking exerted a significant direct positive effect on athletic performance and an indirect effect mediated by achievement goals. This finding suggests that students who regularly engage in constructive self-evaluation tend to set clearer goals and demonstrate higher performance outcomes. Cognitive flexibility showed a positive association with achievement goals but did not exhibit a statistically significant indirect effect on athletic performance in the structural model.
Discussion and Conclusion
The results highlight the psychological mechanisms underlying performance enhancement among female student-athletes. Constructive self-criticism appears to foster a sense of self-awareness and responsibility that translates into more effective training behaviors and performance improvement. Through the mediation of achievement goals, self-critical athletes are better equipped to channel their cognitive efforts toward goal attainment. This aligns with previous findings by Vealey (2024), Minichiello et al. (2024), and Johnson (2006), which emphasize the positive role of self-evaluation in motivation and performance regulation.
The nonsignificant indirect effect of cognitive flexibility suggests that its influence may be more context-dependent. Female athletes, especially adolescents, may not fully translate flexible thinking into performance improvements unless supported by structured coaching and feedback mechanisms. This finding underlines the need for interventions that integrate mental flexibility training within physical education and sports programs.
Overall, the proposed model provides valuable insights into how cognitive and motivational constructs jointly shape athletic success. It underscores the importance of developing self-critical awareness and achievement-oriented motivation among young female athletes. Practically, coaches and educators can design mental skills training programs focusing on reflective self-assessment, adaptive goal setting, and positive feedback utilization. Such programs may strengthen resilience, enhance focus, and promote sustainable motivation in competitive contexts.
Article Message
The findings of this study indicate that constructive self-criticism, when guided by mastery-oriented goals, can enhance motivation, self-efficacy, and sport performance among female student-athletes. Cognitive flexibility was not found to have a significant direct association with performance; however, it demonstrated a meaningful indirect effect through achievement goals. These findings underscore the importance of fostering reflective skills, constructive self-evaluation, and mastery-oriented goal-setting training within school physical education programs. Overall, the cognition–motivation–performance model was supported among Iranian female adolescent athletes and may provide a theoretical and practical foundation for designing educational and psychological interventions in adolescent girls’ sport settings.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations were observed throughout the conduct of this study.
Authors’ Contributions
All authors contributed to the conduct of this study.
Conflict of Interest
According to the authors, this article has no conflict of interest.