Document Type : Original Article
Authors
Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Background and Purpose
Motor development is a critical and widely recognized component of childhood growth, forming the foundation for physical competence, cognitive development, and social interaction. The early acquisition of fundamental motor skills during elementary school years is essential for promoting lifelong participation in physical activity and adopting healthy behavioral patterns. Fundamental motor skills include locomotor abilities, object control, and balance, and they serve not only as the basis for more complex motor behaviors but also as contributors to overall psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation. Physical education classes provide a structured and supportive environment in which children can engage in diverse motor tasks, practice these skills, and develop motivation for movement. Among motivational constructs, autonomous motivation, grounded in Self-Determination Theory, encourages active participation, persistence, and self-directed engagement in physical activities. In contrast, controlled motivation, driven by external pressures or contingencies, may reduce voluntary effort and impede skill acquisition. Despite the importance of motor development, many children worldwide fail to achieve sufficient proficiency in fundamental skills, which can adversely affect long-term physical activity participation and health outcomes. In light of these concerns, the present study aimed to examine the relationships among basic psychological need satisfaction, sports motivation, and both fundamental and selected physical education-related motor skills in girls aged 9 to 12 years. Understanding these relationships provides critical insights for physical education teachers and practitioners, enabling them to design interventions that enhance students' competence, autonomy, and relatedness, ultimately promoting intrinsic motivation and improving motor performance. The study also sought to explore how different components of psychological needs, including competence, autonomy, and relatedness with teachers and peers, uniquely contribute to various motivational and motor outcomes, thereby offering a nuanced understanding of the mechanisms through which psychological factors influence physical development during middle childhood.
Methods
A quasi-experimental, applied, field-based design was employed for this study, conducted in District 16 of Tehran during the 2020–2021 academic year. The target population comprised all female elementary school students enrolled within the district. A sample of 110 girls aged 9 to 12 years, attending a private school, was selected using convenience sampling based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria, following the acquisition of parental consent and institutional approvals from relevant educational authorities. Data collection procedures incorporated two standardized questionnaires alongside three motor skill assessment batteries to ensure comprehensive measurement of the constructs under investigation. The Cognitive Need Satisfaction Questionnaire measured perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness through 18 items rated on a five-point Likert scale, providing a reliable assessment of basic psychological need fulfillment within the physical education context. The Behavioral Regulation in Physical Education Questionnaire (BRPEQ) assessed autonomous motivation through seven items and controlled motivation through five items, enabling differentiation between internally and externally driven motivational orientations. Fundamental motor skills were evaluated using selected subtests of the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, focusing specifically on upper-limb coordination, in conjunction with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK), both of which have demonstrated high reliability (α = 0.97) and established validity within the Iranian context. In addition, six standardized physical education skill tests commonly utilized in Iranian elementary schools were administered to assess dynamic balance, throwing and catching proficiency, tennis ball reception accuracy, muscular endurance through the plank test, and obstacle navigation capabilities. Covariates, including body mass index (BMI) and chronological age, were incorporated into the analytical framework due to their potential influence on motor performance and motivational dispositions within physical education settings. All assessments were performed during regular school hours by trained examiners who followed standardized protocols to ensure consistency and reliability across measurements. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26, with descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficients, and multiple regression analyses conducted, and statistical significance was established at p < 0.05. This methodological approach ensured that both the relationships among psychological needs, motivational constructs, and motor skills, as well as the predictive roles of these variables, could be rigorously evaluated. Reliability and validity of all instruments were established through appropriate psychometric procedures, and all research procedures adhered strictly to ethical guidelines for research involving children, thereby ensuring accurate, meaningful, and ethically sound data collection.
Results
The sample consisted of 110 female students with a mean age of 11.39 years (SD = 0.10) and a mean BMI of 23.36 kg/m² (SD = 0.88), both variables demonstrating normal distributions as indicated by acceptable skewness and kurtosis values. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the predictive roles of basic psychological needs on autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, fundamental motor skills, and physical education-related skills, providing a comprehensive assessment of the hypothesized relationships. Psychological needs collectively explained 40% of the variance in autonomous motivation, with the regression model achieving statistical significance (F = 16.66, p < 0.01). Competence (β = 0.23, p < 0.05), autonomy (β = 0.25, p < 0.01), and peer relatedness (β = 0.24, p < 0.05) emerged as significant positive predictors of autonomous motivation, whereas teacher relatedness (β = 0.20, p > 0.05) did not contribute significantly to the model. For controlled motivation, psychological needs explained 39% of the variance, with the regression model also demonstrating statistical significance (F = 15.21, p < 0.01). Autonomy (β = -0.28, p < 0.01), teacher relatedness (β = -0.33, p < 0.01), and peer relatedness (β = -0.20, p < 0.05) negatively predicted controlled motivation, indicating that higher satisfaction of these needs was associated with lower external motivational regulation, while competence (β = 0.83, p > 0.05) was non-significant in this model. Regarding physical education-related skills, psychological needs accounted for 26% of the variance (F = 8.60, p < 0.01), with competence (β = 0.30, p < 0.05) and peer relatedness (β = 0.33, p < 0.05) positively predicting performance outcomes, whereas autonomy and teacher relatedness did not reach statistical significance. For fundamental motor skills, psychological needs predicted 50% of the variance (F = 23.77, p < 0.01), representing the largest effect size among the outcome variables examined. Competence (β = 0.29, p < 0.01) and autonomy (β = 0.36, p < 0.01) emerged as significant positive predictors, while teacher relatedness and peer relatedness were non-significant within this model. Collectively, these findings indicate that different components of psychological needs contribute variably to distinct motivation types and motor skill outcomes, underscoring the importance of a differentiated approach when designing interventions targeting motivational and motor development. Competence consistently predicted both autonomous motivation and motor skill performance across domains, while autonomy strongly influenced both fundamental motor skills and autonomous motivation. Peer and teacher relatedness selectively affected motivational outcomes but did not consistently impact motor performance, suggesting that the influence of social relatedness may be more pronounced in motivational processes than in direct skill acquisition.
Conclusion
The findings of this study demonstrate that satisfying basic psychological needs is crucial for enhancing both motivation and motor skill development in elementary school girls, with implications extending to physical education pedagogy and curriculum design. Competence and peer relatedness positively predicted autonomous motivation and performance in both physical education-related and fundamental motor skills, whereas autonomy primarily contributed to intrinsic motivation and motor skill acquisition, particularly in the context of fundamental movement patterns. Teacher relatedness exhibited selective effects, significantly predicting controlled motivation but not motor performance, indicating that while positive student-teacher relationships may reduce externally regulated motivation, they may not directly translate to enhanced skill outcomes. Higher fulfillment of psychological needs was consistently associated with decreased controlled motivation, emphasizing the importance of autonomy-supportive learning environments that prioritize student choice, meaningful feedback, and opportunities for self-directed engagement. Overall, the results align substantively with Self-Determination Theory, highlighting that environments supporting competence, autonomy, and peer-relatedness foster intrinsic motivation and skill development, thereby reinforcing the theoretical framework's applicability within physical education contexts. Physical education teachers and curriculum developers are encouraged to create supportive, autonomy-promoting learning contexts that facilitate sustained participation, intrinsic motivation, and holistic motor development. Attending to psychological needs can optimize learning experiences, improve physical literacy, and encourage lifelong engagement in physical activity, ultimately contributing to the health trajectories of children. These findings provide actionable guidance for interventions designed to enhance motivational and motor outcomes, offering evidence-based strategies for educators and practitioners. Fostering supportive environments, promoting autonomy through structured choice, and enhancing competence through mastery-oriented feedback and peer connections represent fundamental strategies for achieving these developmental outcomes, with implications extending to policy development and teacher training programs.
Article Message
Satisfaction of basic psychological needs, including competence, autonomy, and positive relationships with teachers and peers, plays a crucial role in enhancing autonomous motivation and improving participation and fundamental motor skills among elementary school children. The findings highlight that designing physical education environments to consistently meet these needs can facilitate sustained motivation, engagement, and skill development. By providing opportunities for choice, constructive feedback, and supportive social interactions, educators can promote intrinsic motivation, strengthen motor competence, and foster long-term participation in physical activity. These insights are essential for effective curriculum planning and teaching strategies in school physical education.
Authors' Contributions
The conceptualization, manuscript writing, revision, editing, and literature review were conducted by the first author, while data collection and data analysis were carried out by the second author.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude and appreciation to all those who contributed to the completion of this research.
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